Creatine Monohydrate
Research reviewed: 1995-2025
Creatine Monohydrate is a dietary supplement with 50 published peer-reviewed studies involving 2,700 participants, researched for Athletic Performance, Muscle Mass & Strength, Cognitive Function & Brain Health and 7 more areas.
Evidence at a Glance
Strength is scored by study design, sample size, study type, and outcomes
Athletic Performance
ModerateMuscle Mass & Strength
ModerateCognitive Function & Brain Health
WeakCreatine in Older Adults & Aging
WeakCreatine in Women & Bone Health
ModerateMental Health & Depression
ModerateNeurological Conditions & Brain Injury
StrongMetabolic Health & Diabetes
ModerateCardiovascular Health
WeakLong-term Safety & Renal Function
WeakResearch Visualised
Visual breakdown of the clinical data.
Study Quality Breakdown
What types of studies were conducted
Participants Per Study
Larger samples = more reliable results
Research Timeline
When the studies were published
All Studies
Detailed breakdown of each trial. Click to expand.
Athletic Performance
To determine the effects of creatine in combination with resistance training on body composition, strength, and functional performance in older adults. Intervention under study: Creatine supplementation during a period of resistance training Studies Reviewed 25 randomised, placebo-controlled trials
Study Type
Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine in combination with resistance training on body composition, strength, and functional performance in older adults. Intervention under study: Creatine supplementation during a period of resistance training Studies Reviewed 25 randomised, placebo-controlled trials
Results
The results from the meta-analysis suggest that the combination of creatine supplementation and resistance training is associated with increased total body mass, fat-free mass, and increased leg and chest press one-rep max.
To determine the effects of creatine on muscular strength, fat-free mass, resting metabolic rate, peripheral blood flow, and blood lipids
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine on muscular strength, fat-free mass, resting metabolic rate, peripheral blood flow, and blood lipids
Dose
20 g/day of creatine monohydrate (4 x 5g creatine powder dissolved in flavoured dextrose drink mix) for the first 5 days and 10 g/day (2 x 5g creatine powder dissolved in flavoured dextrose drink) for the next 23 days or placebo
Participants
30 healthy active, but resistance-untrained, males with an average age of 21 years
Duration
28 days
Results
The study showed an association between 20 g/day of creatine intake and significant increases in body mass, body water, muscular strength, and resting metabolic rate after 28 days. The addition of creatine supplementation to resistance training was associated with significant increases in total and fat-free body mass, muscular strength, peripheral blood flow (decreased peripheral blood flow may cause an injury to nerves and other tissues) and resting energy expenditure, as well as improvements in blood cholesterol.
How They Measured It
Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg and bench press using standard methods.
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular strength and body mass during strength training.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular strength and body mass during strength training.
Dose
21 g/day of creatine monohydrate (7 g doses x 3 per day) for the first 5 days and 9 g/day (3 g doses x 3 per day) for the next 58 days or placebo
Participants
25 healthy male subjects with an average age of 22 years
Duration
9 weeks
Results
In participants who underwent both creatine supplementation and strength training, researchers observed a 2.9% significant increase in body mass. Meanwhile, no change in body mass was observed in the control and placebo groups. The study also showed that placebo and creatine groups had a similar increase in isokinetic force after 6 weeks of training whilst the control remained unchanged.
How They Measured It
Isokinetic force was determined during a single squat movement by means of an isokinetic dynamometer.
To evaluate the effects of short-term creatine supplementation on repeated sprint ability via systematic review and meta-analysis.
Study Type
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of short-term creatine supplementation on repeated sprint ability via systematic review and meta-analysis.
Dose
~20 g/day creatine monohydrate (loading dose)
Participants
Meta-analysis of 14 double-blind RCT studies (participants aged 18–60 years)
Duration
3–7 days (short-term loading)
Results
Creatine significantly increased body mass (+0.79 kg) and mean power output (δ=0.61; p=0.002) during repeated sprint tests. No significant effect on peak power, fatigue index, or blood lactate.
How They Measured It
Peak power, mean power, fatigue index during repeated sprint tests; body mass; blood lactate; random-effects meta-analysis
To evaluate the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on endurance performance in a trained population.
Study Type
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on endurance performance in a trained population.
Dose
Various (creatine monohydrate in included studies)
Participants
Meta-analysis of 13 placebo-controlled trials (trained athletes)
Duration
Various
Results
Non-significant change in endurance performance after creatine supplementation (pooled SMD = −0.07; p=0.47). Creatine does not appear to enhance endurance performance in trained athletes.
How They Measured It
Pooled standardised mean difference for endurance performance across 13 placebo-controlled trials; PEDro quality scale
Muscle Mass & Strength
To study the effects of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on muscular performance and body composition in older men.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To study the effects of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on muscular performance and body composition in older men.
Dose
Loading phase (first 5 days): average dose of 26.4 g/day of creatine (0.3 g/kg body weight per day of creatine monohydrate powder) or placebo Maintenance phase (6th day until the completion of the final test period): average dose of 6.2 g/day (0.07 g/kg body weight per day of creatine monohydrate powder) or placebo
Participants
30 men aged 60 to 84 years
Duration
12 weeks
Results
The creatine group exhibited greater increases in lean tissue mass, rising from 54.2 ± 1.6 to 57.5 ± 1.7 kg (a 3.3 kg increase), compared to the placebo group, which showed a modest increase from 50.8 ± 1.4 to 52.1 ± 1.3 kg (a 1.3 kg increase). Additionally, the total amount of weight lifted and the number of repetitions performed during sessions throughout the intervention period were 31% greater in the creatine group (267,914 ± 18,055 kg·reps) compared to the placebo group (227,693 ± 15,704 kg·reps). The study also found an association between creatine supplementation combined with resistance training in older men and significant improvements in leg press strength, leg extension strength, leg press endurance, leg extension endurance. Improvement in these parameters suggest an enhanced strength and endurance in various leg exercises, which can contribute to improved lower-body functional fitness, muscle development. In addition, the researchers also observed a significant increase in average isokinetic knee extension/flexion power following creatine supplementation compared to placebo. Improvements in average isokinetic knee extension power suggests that the muscles responsible for straightening the knee are generating more force, potentially leading to greater strength and functionality in activities like walking, running, and jumping, while increased average isokinetic knee flexion power indicates improvement in the ability of the muscles responsible for bending the knee to generate force, beneficial for activities such as climbing stairs or performing squats. There were no significant differences in bench press strength and bench press endurance between the creatine supplementation group and the placebo group.
How They Measured It
Bone-mineral free lean tissue mass, fat mass, and fat percentage were measured by a medical imaging technique used to quantify the distribution of fat and lean mass throughout the body. Muscular strength and endurance were measured through one-repetition leg press, knee extension, and bench press using standard methods. Muscular endurance and fatigue were further assessed by measuring average power for the knee extensors and flexors of the dominant leg on a isokinetic dynamometer, a device used for muscle testing.
To study the effects of creatine supplementation combined with strength training on muscular performance and body composition in older men.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To study the effects of creatine supplementation combined with strength training on muscular performance and body composition in older men.
Dose
Loading phase (first 5 days): ≈26.4 g/day of creatine monohydrate powder or placebo Maintenance phase (6th day until end of study): ≈6.2 g/day of creatine monohydrate powder or placebo
Participants
30 men aged 60 to 84 years
Duration
12 weeks
Results
The researchers observed that the group taking creatine gained more muscle and lifted 31% more weight with more repetitions compared to placebo. They also observed that the group taking creatine demonstrated more power in the knee muscles, which is beneficial for activities like walking, running, and squatting. Additionally, older men who took creatine and did resistance training had much stronger legs and better lower-body fitness. Overall, the study suggests that creatine may help increase muscle mass, strength, and power.
To evaluate the therapeutic effects of resistance training with and without creatine supplementation in patients with mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. Previous studies have shown that the progression of Parkinson’s disease symptoms is associated with a gradual loss of muscle mass, decreased muscular strength and endurance, and an increase in musculoskeletal symptoms, including muscle and joint pain.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To evaluate the therapeutic effects of resistance training with and without creatine supplementation in patients with mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. Previous studies have shown that the progression of Parkinson’s disease symptoms is associated with a gradual loss of muscle mass, decreased muscular strength and endurance, and an increase in musculoskeletal symptoms, including muscle and joint pain.
Dose
Loading phase (first 5 days): 20 g/day of creatine or placebo Maintenance phase: 5 g/day of creatine or placebo
Participants
20 male and female patients with Parkinson’s disease, with an average age of 63 years
Duration
12 weeks
Results
Both groups experienced a significant increase in relative strength for the leg extension exercise; however, the creatine-supplemented group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in chest strength by 21%, leg strength by 18%, and biceps strength by 23% compared to the placebo group, which showed significant increases in chest press strength by 9%, leg extension strength by 16%, and biceps curl strength by 8%. In addition, the researchers observed a significant 11% improvement in the time to perform three consecutive chair stands following training in the creatine-supplemented group. This improvement may indicate enhanced lower limb strength and mobility. Conversely, the placebo-supplemented group did not experience a significant improvement in chair stand performance (6% improvement). The researchers also observed an increase in endurance by 38% for chest press and 95% for leg extension in the creatine-supplemented group compared to baseline. However, no significant differences were observed when compared to the placebo group Moreover, both exercise groups experienced a significant increase in fat-free mass following the 12 weeks of training with no additional benefit due to creatine supplementation. No changes were observed in percentage body fat. Creatine and placebo supplementation were well tolerated with no side effects reported.
How They Measured It
Muscular strength and endurance were measured through one-repetition leg extension, chest press, and biceps curl using standard methods. Lower extremity performance was assessed through 3 consecutive chair stands, a functional measure often used as an assessment of lower body strength, balance, and functional mobility.
To evaluate the effects of strength training with and without creatine in patients with mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. Previous studies show that Parkinson’s progression leads to muscle loss, weakness, and increased muscle and joint pain.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of strength training with and without creatine in patients with mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. Previous studies show that Parkinson’s progression leads to muscle loss, weakness, and increased muscle and joint pain.
Dose
Loading phase (first 5 days): 20 g/day of creatine or placebo Maintenance phase: 5 g/day of creatine or placebo
Participants
20 male and female patients with Parkinson’s disease, with an average age of 63 years
Duration
12 weeks
Results
The researchers observed that both groups got stronger in the leg extension exercise. However, the creatine group showed significantly greater improvements: 21% more in chest strength, 18% more in leg strength, and 23% more in biceps strength, compared to 9%, 16%, and 8% in the placebo group. The creatine group also improved their three chair stand time, compared to placebo. Improved three chair stand time indicates better lower body strength and mobility. No side effects were reported in both creatine and placebo.
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on increasing muscle mass and strength in older adults and to directly compare the effects of creatine supplementation before vs. after resistance training.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on increasing muscle mass and strength in older adults and to directly compare the effects of creatine supplementation before vs. after resistance training.
Dose
Group 1: 0.1 g/kg body weight per day of creatine taken immediately before resistance training and a placebo taken immediately after resistance training Group 2: Placebo taken immediately before resistance training and 0.1 g/kg body weight per day of creatine immediately after resistance training Group 3: Placebo taken immediately before resistance training and another placebo taken immediately after resistance training
Participants
64 male and female older adults aged 50-71 years (39 completed the trial)
Duration
32 weeks
Results
The study found that creatine supplementation after resistance training showed greater significant improvements in lean tissue mass (from 46.6 ±10.8 kg to 49.6 ± 11.8 kg) compared to placebo (from 41.7 ± 8.7 kg to 42.2 ± 9.1 kg). The researchers also observed significantly improved appendicular muscle mass or the muscles of the arms and legs (from 7.1 ± 1.2 kg to 7.7 ± 1.7 kg) more than the placebo group (from 6.6 ± 1.0 kg to 6.7 ± 1.0 kg). Pre-exercise creatine supplementation did not exhibit a greater effect on lean tissue mass compared to the placebo. Both treatment groups and the placebo group experienced a decrease in fat mass over time, with no significant differences between the groups. Moreover, there was a significant increase of 36.6 ± 26.6 kg in leg press strength and 15.2 ± 13.0 kg in chest press strength observed in the pre-exercise creatine supplementation group. The same trend was noted in the post-exercise creatine supplementation group, with significant increases of 40.8 ± 38.4 kg and 15.7 ± 12.5 kg, respectively. These gains were notably higher compared to the minimal increases observed in the placebo group, which showed a rise of 5.6 ± 35.1 kg in leg press strength and 1.9 ± 14.7 kg in chest press strength. An increase in leg press and chest press strength is often considered a positive outcome in strength training, reflecting enhanced muscle strength, endurance, and adaptation to the training regimen targeting the lower body and chest muscles. Overall, the findings suggest that creatine supplementation, in combination with resistance training, may result in greater gains in lean tissue mass and increased muscle strength compared to resistance training alone.
How They Measured It
Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg press and chest press strength using standard methods. Lean tissue and fat mass were measured by a medical imaging technique used to quantify the distribution of fat and lean mass throughout the body. Lean tissue or fat-free mass includes nonfat components like muscles and organs, contributing to metabolic activity and overall strength, while fat mass encompasses the total amount of body fat, including essential and storage fat.
To determine the effects of creatine on muscle mass and strength in older adults, and to compare its impact before and after strength training.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine on muscle mass and strength in older adults, and to compare its impact before and after strength training.
Dose
Group 1: ≈7.72g of creatine taken before resistance training and a placebo taken after resistance training Group 2: Placebo before resistance training and ≈7.72g creatine after Group 3: Placebo before and after training
Participants
64 male and female older adults aged 50-71 years (39 completed the trial)
Duration
32 weeks
Results
The researchers observed that participants who took creatine, whether before or after resistance training, gained significantly more muscle mass compared to the placebo group. However, taking creatine after training showed the best results. Both creatine groups also had significantly bigger gains in arm and leg muscles, but those taking creatine after training had the most significant increases, with leg press improving by 40.8 kg and chest press by 15.7 kg, while the placebo group had smaller gains. Overall, combining creatine with resistance training may result in greater muscle mass and strength gains compared to resistance training alone.
To investigate the effects of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and females.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and females.
Dose
0.2 g/kg body weight/day of creatine (given twice a week only after training) or placebo
Participants
21 male and female volunteers with an average age of 25 years (creatine group) and 30 years (placebo group)
Duration
6 weeks
Results
Creatine supplementation after exercise resulted in a greater increase in muscle thickness of the arms by 10.3% (0.36 ± 0.06 cm increase) compared to the 6.3% increase following placebo supplementation (0.24 ± 0.07 cm increase). The lean tissue mass of the arms also increased significantly more in the creatine arm by 12.8% (0.36 ± 0.07 kg increase) compared with the placebo arm which increased by 6.5% (0.20 ± 0.06 kg increase). Males demonstrated a significantly greater increase in lean tissue mass with creatine supplementation compared to females. There were no significant differences in knee extensor muscle thickness or leg lean tissue mass between the creatine and placebo groups, as well as other measured parameters, which exhibited similar changes across both groups.
How They Measured It
Muscle thickness was assessed using a B-Mode ultrasound, a type of medical imaging used to produce images of internal body structures and measure the thickness of the muscles. Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg press and bench press on each limb using standard methods. Lean tissue, bone, and fat mass were measured by a medical imaging technique used to quantify the distribution of fat, bone, and lean mass throughout the body. Lean tissue or fat-free mass includes nonfat components like muscles and organs, contributing to metabolic activity and overall strength, while fat mass encompasses the total amount of body fat, including essential and storage fat.
To investigate the effect of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and females.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effect of creatine ingestion after exercise on muscle thickness in males and females.
Dose
≈31 g/week of creatine (2 x 15.5 g per week taken only after training) or placebo
Participants
21 male and female volunteers with an average age of 25 years (creatine group) and 30 years (placebo group)
Duration
6 weeks
Results
The study found an association between taking creatine after exercise and a significantly bigger increase in arm muscle thickness (10.3% vs. 6.3%) and arm muscle mass (12.8% vs. 6.5%) compared to a placebo. In addition, men demonstrated greater muscle mass gains with creatine compared to women. There were no significant differences in leg muscle thickness or mass between the creatine and placebo groups, and other measured parameters were similar in both groups.
To investigate the effects of high-velocity resistance training and creatine supplementation in untrained healthy ageing males.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of high-velocity resistance training and creatine supplementation in untrained healthy ageing males.
Dose
0.1 g/kg body weight per day of creatine powder (to mix in water and consume within 5 minutes following each resistance training session) or placebo
Participants
26 male participants aged 50 years and older (24 completed the study)
Duration
8 weeks
Results
The researchers observed increased leg press strength over time in both creatine and placebo groups. However, significantly greater gains were observed in the creatine group, rising from 265.00 ± 81.00 kg to 409.50 ± 137.03 kg (an increase of 144 kg), compared to changes in the placebo group, which went from 240.50 ± 105.76 kg to 324.41 ± 133.99 kg (an increase of 84 kg). Similarly, both groups demonstrated increased total lower-body strength (combined leg press, knee flexion, and knee extension), with significantly greater gains observed in the creatine group (from 476.91 ± 116.98 kg to 681.66 ± 179.15 kg) compared to the placebo group (from 442.58 ± 120.45 kg to 576.16 ± 156.02 kg). Significant increases over time were also observed for muscle thickness, peak torque, and other measured parameters, but no significant differences were found between the treatment and placebo groups. The results indicate that engaging in high-velocity resistance training can contribute to enhanced muscle mass and performance. Furthermore, supplementing with creatine appears to provide an additional boost, specifically increasing lower-body muscle strength.
How They Measured It
Muscle thickness was assessed using a B-Mode ultrasound, a type of medical imaging used to produce images of internal body structures and measure the thickness of the muscles. Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg press, chest press, and elbow and knee flexion and extension using standard methods. Torque measurements were performed with the knee flexors and extensors on a isokinetic dynamometer, a device used for muscle testing. Physical performance was assessed using performance tests which included walking backwards twice (i.e. toe to heel) on a wooden board and walking an 80-metre hallway as quickly as possible.
To investigate the effects of high-velocity resistance training and creatine in untrained, healthy older men. High-velocity resistance training involves lifting weights quickly and explosively.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of high-velocity resistance training and creatine in untrained, healthy older men. High-velocity resistance training involves lifting weights quickly and explosively.
Dose
0.1 g/kg body weight per day of creatine powder (to mix in water and consume within 5 minutes following each resistance training session) or placebo
Participants
26 male participants aged 50 years and older (24 completed the study)
Duration
8 weeks
Results
The researchers observed significant improvements in leg press performance for both creatine and placebo groups, but the creatine group demonstrated a significantly greater increase. Total lower-body strength also increased more in the creatine group, while muscle thickness and other strength measures improved similarly in both groups. Overall, high-velocity resistance training improves muscle mass and performance, and creatine supplementation boosts lower-body strength.
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation combined with complex training on muscle damage and sport performance.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation combined with complex training on muscle damage and sport performance.
Dose
First 6 days: 20 g/day of creatine monohydrate (4 x 5 creatine fuel powder plus 5 g of dextrose dissolved in 300 mL of water after breakfast, lunch, and dinner as well as before bedtime) or placebo 7th day to end of the study: 2 g/day of creatine monohydrate plus 2 g dextrose after lunch or placebo
Participants
30 male university athletes from baseball, basketball, and tchoukball teams with an average age of 20 years
Duration
4 weeks
Results
The researchers observed a significantly greater increase in one-repetition maximum (1-RM) strength in the creatine monohydrate group (from 133.67 ± 14.07 to 178.33 ± 16.86) compared to the placebo group (from 131.67 ± 15.77 to 165.66 ± 14.62). This increase is often considered a positive outcome in strength training, reflecting enhanced muscle strength and adaptation to the training regimen. No significant differences in other variables of body composition and sport performance were noted between pre- and post-training in both groups and between groups. The researchers also observed that, during both the first and last training sessions, the muscle damage responses (creatine kinase activities) after 24 and 48 hours of complex training in the creatine group were significantly reduced compared to the placebo group. For instance, at the first training session, the creatine kinase activities after 24 hours of training were 285.40 ± 77.58 U/L in the creatine supplementation group and 347.13 ± 93.57 U/L in the placebo group. Similarly, at the last training bout, the creatine kinase after 24 hours of training were 262.40 ± 68.55 U/L in the creatine supplementation group and 329.80 ± 76.13 U/L in the placebo group. The same trend was observed for creatine kinase activities after 48 hours of training at the first and last training bouts. This reduction in muscle damage responses (creatine kinase activities) may be beneficial for athletes as it can help them recover faster and perform better in subsequent training sessions. Overall, the findings suggest that combining creatine supplementation with complex training may improve maximal muscular strength and reduce muscle damage.
How They Measured It
Muscular strength was measured through one repetition maximum strength test of half squat using standard methods. Muscle damage was assessed through creatine kinase levels in the blood, an enzyme found in muscle tissue that can provide insights into the extent of muscle stress or injury. Sport performance was assessed using performance tests including a 30-metre sprint and jump performances.
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation combined with complex training on muscle damage and sport performance.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation combined with complex training on muscle damage and sport performance.
Dose
First 6 days: 20 g/day of creatine monohydrate (4 x 5 g doses with 5 g of dextrose in 300 mL of water after each meal and before bed) or placebo. 7th day to end of study: 2 g/day of creatine monohydrate plus 2 g dextrose after lunch or placebo.
Participants
30 male university athletes from baseball, basketball, and tchoukball (a sport similar to European handball) teams with an average age of 20 years
Duration
4 weeks
Results
The researchers observed a significantly greater increase in one-repetition maximum (1-RM) strength in the creatine group compared to the placebo, indicating better muscle strength. The creatine group also showed less muscle damage 24 and 48 hours after training, suggesting faster recovery. Overall, the study suggests that creatine boosts muscle strength and reduces muscle damage
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation when combined with resistance training on muscle size and strength in young adults.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation when combined with resistance training on muscle size and strength in young adults.
Dose
Group 1: 0.15 g/kg body weight of creatine (approximately 12 g/day taken 2 days per week during resistance training or approximately 24 g/week) Group 2: 0.10 g/kg body weight of creatine (approximately 8 g/day taken 3 days/week during resistance training or approximately 24 g/week) Group 3: Placebo taken 2 days/week during resistance training Group 4: Placebo taken 3 days/week during resistance training Subjects were instructed to consume half their respective dosage of creatine or placebo immediately before and the other half immediately after each resistance training session with water because it has been shown that the timing of creatine ingestion is crucial for creating an anabolic environment for muscle growth.
Participants
38 physically active, nonresistance trained men and women university students aged 21 to 28 years
Duration
6 weeks
Results
The study found a significant increase in muscle thickness across all groups with resistance training. However, participants supplemented with creatine showed even more remarkable improvements in elbow flexor muscle thickness. Specifically, there was a significant 20% increase (0.6 ± 0.9 cm) for those taking creatine during 2 days per week of resistance training and a 16.4% increase (0.4 ± 0.6 cm) for those supplementing with creatine during 3 days per week of resistance training. In comparison, the placebo groups, with either 2 days or 3 days of resistance training alone, experienced smaller increases of 2.3% and 6.3%, respectively. Leg press and chest press strength increased over time with no significant differences between groups; however, men supplementing with creatine experienced a significantly greater increase in leg press strength (77.3 ± 51.2 kg or 62%) compared to women on creatine (21.3 ± 10 kg or 34%).
How They Measured It
Muscle thickness of the elbow and knee flexors and extensors was measured using a muscle ultrasound Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg and bench press using standard methods.
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation when combined with resistance training on muscle size and strength in young adults.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation when combined with resistance training on muscle size and strength in young adults.
Dose
Group 1: 0.15 g/kg creatine (about 12 g/day, 2 days a week, totaling 24 g/week) Group 2: 0.10 g/kg creatine (about 8 g/day, 3 days a week, totaling 24 g/week) Group 3: Placebo, 2 days a week during resistance training Group 4: Placebo, 3 days a week during resistance training Subjects took half their creatine or placebo dose before and half after each training session with water to optimise muscle growth.
Participants
38 physically active, nonresistance trained men and women university students aged 21 to 28 years
Duration
6 weeks
Results
The researchers observed that resistance training increased muscle thickness for all participants, but those taking creatine had significantly better results in their arm muscles. People taking creatine and training 2 days a week saw a 20% increase, and those training 3 days a week had a 16.4% increase, compared to the placebo groups' smaller gains of 2.3% and 6.3%. Strength in leg press and chest press improved for all, but men taking creatine showed a significantly larger in57.5crease in leg press strength (62%) compared to women (34%).
To investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance in older women
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance in older women
Dose
0.3 g/kg body mass/day creatine monohydrate capsules (parcelled into three equal dosages to be consumed with each major meal) or placebo
Participants
30 old women (27 included in the analysis with an average age of 63 years)
Duration
7 days
Results
The study found that creatine supplementation is associated with significant improvements in muscular strength, power, and lower-body motor functional performance in older women, as evidenced by increased bench press and leg press performance, increased in body mass and fat-free mass, and decreased completion time on the tandem gait test. The researchers observed a significant increase in leg press by 5.2 ± 1.8 kg and in bench press by 1.7 ± 0.4 kg after 7 days of creatine supplementation. No significant differences were observed in the placebo group. Additionally, the creatine-supplemented group showed small but significant improvements in body mass (from 67.11 ± 9.71 to 67.74 ± 10.44) and fat-free mass (from 45.77 ± 7.84 to 46.31 ± 7.56 kg) compared to the placebo group. Moreover, significant improvements were observed in both upper- and lower-body average power, as well as lower-body functional performance in the creatine-supplemented group but not in the placebo group.
To investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance in older women.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance in older women.
Dose
0.3 g/kg body weight of creatine monohydrate capsules (divided into three doses taken with each meal) or a placebo.
Participants
30 old women (27 included in the analysis with an average age of 63 years)
Duration
7 days
Results
The study found an association between creatine supplementation and significantly improved muscular strength, power, and lower-body function in older women. Researchers observed a 5.2 kg increase in leg press strength and a 1.7 kg increase in bench press strength after 7 days, with no significant changes in the placebo group. The creatine group also had small but significant gains in body weight (67.11 to 67.74 kg) and muscle mass (45.77 to 46.31 kg). They demonstrated better upper and lower body strength and function, unlike the placebo group.
To investigate the effects of creatine monohydrate on anaerobic performance (short, fast, high-intensity activities not requiring the body to utilise oxygen) and one-repetition maximum strength—an indicator commonly used in weight training and resistance exercise to assess and monitor strength gains over time.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of creatine monohydrate on anaerobic performance (short, fast, high-intensity activities not requiring the body to utilise oxygen) and one-repetition maximum strength—an indicator commonly used in weight training and resistance exercise to assess and monitor strength gains over time.
Dose
20 g/day of creatine monohydrate powder (mixed with 12 oz. of water) or placebo
Participants
22 men with an average age of 22 years
Duration
7 days
Results
The researchers observed that supplementation with 20 g/day of creatine monohydrate for 7 days resulted in a significant 5.4% increase in average power, from 624.55 ± 73.84 W at the start of the study to 658.25 ± 76.96 at the end of the study for the supplement group, but not for the placebo group (from 591.75 ± 98.09 W to 590.08 ± 82.01 W). An increase in average (mean) power in the context of aerobic performance typically signifies an improvement in the average amount of power output during a workout or exercise session. There were no significant differences between the supplement and placebo groups in terms of peak power, body weight, 1-repetition maximum leg extension strength, or bench press strength.
How They Measured It
Anaerobic performance was assessed using a bicycle ergometer, a stationary device that simulates the experience of cycling a bicycle which measures anaerobic power and capacity. Muscular strength was measured through one-repetition leg and bench press using standard methods.
To investigate the effects of creatine monohydrate on short, high-intensity activities (anaerobic performance) and muscle strength.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To investigate the effects of creatine monohydrate on short, high-intensity activities (anaerobic performance) and muscle strength.
Dose
20 g/day of creatine monohydrate powder (mixed with 12 oz. of water) or placebo
Participants
22 men with an average age of 22 years
Duration
7 days
Results
The researchers observed that taking 20 grams of creatine monohydrate daily for 7 days significantly increased average power by 5.4%. The placebo group didn't see any significant changes. This means the creatine group produced more power during workouts.
To examine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on lower-limb muscle power in Brazilian elite soccer players during pre-season training.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To examine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on lower-limb muscle power in Brazilian elite soccer players during pre-season training.
Dose
Loading phase (First week): 20 g/d of creatine monohydrate (4 x 5g of creatine monohydrate powder dissolve in juice) Maintenance phase (next 6 weeks): 5g/day of creatine (single dose taken during lunch) or placebo
Participants
14 male soccer players with an average age of 18 years
Duration
7 weeks
Results
The researchers observed lower jumping performance in the placebo group (percent change = −0.7%) than in the creatine group (percent change = +2.4%), but it did not reach statistical significance. Further analysis revealed that the proportion of subjects that experienced reduction in jumping performance was significantly greater in the placebo group than in the creatine group (5 and 1, respectively) after the intensified training.
How They Measured It
Jumping performance was assessed using countermovement jump performance which measures lower-limb muscle power.
To examine the effects of creatine on lower-limb muscle power in Brazilian elite soccer players during pre-season training.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Purpose
To examine the effects of creatine on lower-limb muscle power in Brazilian elite soccer players during pre-season training.
Dose
Loading phase (First week): 20 g/d of creatine monohydrate (4 x 5g dissolved in juice) Maintenance phase (next 6 weeks): 5g/day of creatine (single dose taken during lunch) or placebo
Participants
14 male soccer players with an average age of 18 years
Duration
7 weeks
Results
The researchers observed that the placebo group had a slight decrease in jumping performance (-0.7%), while the creatine group had a slight increase (+2.4%), but this difference wasn't statistically significant. However, more people in the placebo group reported that their jumping performance got worse compared to the creatine group after intense training.
Cognitive Function & Brain Health
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on memory performance in healthy humans.
Study Type
Systematic review and meta-analysis
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on memory performance in healthy humans.
Dose
Various (2-20 g/day)
Participants
Meta-analysis of RCTs (N=353 participants across 8 studies)
Duration
Various
Results
Creatine supplementation showed a significant beneficial effect on memory across all age groups (d = 0.53). Effects were stronger in older adults. Creatine may increase brain creatine stores and improve energy metabolism during cognitive tasks.
How They Measured It
Memory tests across multiple RCTs (word recall, digit span, spatial memory)
To evaluate the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on cognitive function in adults, including memory, executive function, attention, and processing speed.
Study Type
Systematic review and meta-analysis
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on cognitive function in adults, including memory, executive function, attention, and processing speed.
Dose
Various creatine monohydrate doses
Participants
Meta-analysis of 16 RCTs involving 492 participants aged 20.8-76.4 years
Duration
Various
Results
Creatine supplementation showed significant positive effects on memory (SMD=0.31) and attention time (SMD=-0.31) and processing speed (SMD=-0.51). Benefits were greater for those with diseases, those aged 18-60 years, and females.
How They Measured It
Memory, executive function, attention, information processing speed assessed by standardised mean differences across 16 RCTs
To determine if creatine supplementation at varying doses could influence cognitive performance and prefrontal cortex activation in healthy young adults.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled
Purpose
To determine if creatine supplementation at varying doses could influence cognitive performance and prefrontal cortex activation in healthy young adults.
Dose
10 g/day (CR10) or 20 g/day (CR20) creatine vs placebo for 6 weeks
Participants
30 healthy young adults (11 male, 19 female)
Duration
6 weeks
Results
Both 10g and 20g/day creatine supplementation improved cognitive performance compared to placebo. Higher dose (20g) produced greater improvements in processing speed. Prefrontal cortex activation was modulated by creatine supplementation.
How They Measured It
Cognitive battery (processing speed, working memory, executive function), fNIRS prefrontal activation
To investigate the effect of creatine supplementation on cognitive functioning in vegetarians vs omnivores, with focus on dietary status and memory.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To investigate the effect of creatine supplementation on cognitive functioning in vegetarians vs omnivores, with focus on dietary status and memory.
Dose
20 g/day creatine supplement
Participants
128 young adult females (vegetarians and omnivores)
Duration
5 days
Results
In vegetarians (but not omnivores), creatine supplementation resulted in better memory performance. Regardless of diet, creatine reduced variability in choice reaction-time responses. No effect on verbal fluency or vigilance.
How They Measured It
Memory tests, verbal fluency, vigilance, choice reaction-time task; double-blind placebo-controlled design
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance in the largest cross-over RCT to date, comparing vegetarians and omnivores.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To determine the effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance in the largest cross-over RCT to date, comparing vegetarians and omnivores.
Dose
5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
123 participants (~50% vegetarians, ~50% omnivores)
Duration
6 weeks per arm (cross-over)
Results
Bayesian evidence supported a small beneficial effect. BDS bordered significance (p=0.064); RAPM did not improve (p=0.327). No significant advantage for vegetarians over omnivores. Side effects more frequent with creatine (p=0.002).
How They Measured It
Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM); Backward Digit Span (BDS); 8 exploratory cognitive tests; cross-over double-blind design
Creatine in Older Adults & Aging
To evaluate the effects of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on muscle strength and lean tissue mass in older adults.
Study Type
Systematic review and meta-analysis
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on muscle strength and lean tissue mass in older adults.
Dose
≥5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
Meta-analysis of RCTs in adults aged 60+ years
Duration
Various (up to 32 weeks)
Results
Creatine combined with resistance training significantly increased muscle strength and lean tissue mass in older adults. Effects were particularly pronounced in interventions lasting up to 32 weeks. Benefits are clinically meaningful for sarcopenia management.
How They Measured It
Muscle strength (grip strength, 1RM), lean body mass, functional performance
To review evidence on creatine monohydrate supplementation for older adults and clinical populations, focusing on sarcopenia, frailty, and functional decline.
Study Type
Systematic review
Purpose
To review evidence on creatine monohydrate supplementation for older adults and clinical populations, focusing on sarcopenia, frailty, and functional decline.
Dose
≥5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
Systematic review spanning numerous RCTs in older adults and clinical populations
Duration
Various
Results
Creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training consistently improves muscle strength and lean mass in older adults. Evidence also supports benefits for bone health and functional capacity, relevant to sarcopenia and frailty management.
How They Measured It
Muscle strength, lean mass, physical function, bone density across studies
Creatine in Women & Bone Health
To examine the effects of 2 years of creatine monohydrate supplementation and exercise on bone health in postmenopausal women.
Study Type
Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled
Purpose
To examine the effects of 2 years of creatine monohydrate supplementation and exercise on bone health in postmenopausal women.
Dose
0.14 g/kg/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
237 postmenopausal women (mean age 59 years)
Duration
2 years
Results
Creatine supplementation combined with exercise attenuated bone mineral density loss at the femoral neck compared to placebo plus exercise. Long-term creatine use appears safe and may help maintain bone health in postmenopausal women.
How They Measured It
Bone mineral density (DEXA scan), bone mineral content, muscle strength
To review whether creatine supplementation enhances physical performance in active females.
Study Type
Systematic review
Purpose
To review whether creatine supplementation enhances physical performance in active females.
Dose
Various (2-20 g/day)
Participants
Systematic review of RCTs including only female participants
Duration
Various
Results
Creatine supplementation in females produced significant gains in strength and lean mass, though effects were slightly smaller than those typically seen in males. Females respond positively to creatine, and it is safe and effective for athletic performance improvement in women.
How They Measured It
Strength, power, endurance, body composition outcomes in female-only studies
Mental Health & Depression
To determine whether creatine monohydrate augmentation of SSRI treatment improves response speed and efficacy in women with major depressive disorder.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To determine whether creatine monohydrate augmentation of SSRI treatment improves response speed and efficacy in women with major depressive disorder.
Dose
5 g/day creatine monohydrate added to escitalopram (SSRI)
Participants
52 women with major depressive disorder
Duration
8 weeks
Results
Creatine augmentation showed significantly greater improvements in HAM-D scores vs placebo as early as week 2, with improvements sustained through week 8. No significant differences in adverse events between groups.
How They Measured It
Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) assessed at weeks 2, 4, and 8
To investigate whether creatine monohydrate as an add-on to cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) improves depression symptoms in an under-resourced area.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To investigate whether creatine monohydrate as an add-on to cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) improves depression symptoms in an under-resourced area.
Dose
Not specified in abstract (standard supplement dose with CBT)
Participants
100 participants (50 females, mean age 30.4 years) with depression (mean PHQ-9=17.6)
Duration
8 weeks
Results
PHQ-9 scores decreased in both arms, but significantly more so in the creatine group (mean difference = −5.12). Treatment discontinuation and adverse events were comparable between groups.
How They Measured It
Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) depression score; mixed-model repeated measures ANCOVA
To test whether creatine monohydrate is effective as adjunctive therapy for bipolar depression as an add-on to standard medication.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To test whether creatine monohydrate is effective as adjunctive therapy for bipolar depression as an add-on to standard medication.
Dose
6 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
35 patients with bipolar disorder type I or II in depressive episode
Duration
6 weeks
Results
No significant difference in MADRS total score change between groups (p=0.560). However, remission rates significantly favoured creatine: 52.9% vs 11.1% remission in placebo (p=0.012; OR=9.0).
How They Measured It
Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS); intention-to-treat analysis
Neurological Conditions & Brain Injury
To assess the neuroprotective effect of creatine supplementation on complications in children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To assess the neuroprotective effect of creatine supplementation on complications in children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Dose
0.4 g/kg/day oral creatine suspension
Participants
39 children and adolescents aged 1–18 years with TBI
Duration
6 months
Results
Creatine significantly improved cognitive function (p<0.001), personality/behavior (p<0.001), self-care (p=0.029), and communication (p=0.018). Duration of post-traumatic amnesia and ICU stay also improved. No side effects observed.
How They Measured It
Post-traumatic amnesia duration, ICU stay, disability scores, cognitive function, personality/behavior, self-care, communication, locomotion
To evaluate if creatine reduces traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue following traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To evaluate if creatine reduces traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue following traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents.
Dose
0.4 g/kg/day oral creatine suspension
Participants
39 children and adolescents aged 1–18 years with TBI
Duration
6 months
Results
Creatine significantly reduced headache (p<0.001), dizziness (p=0.005), and fatigue (p<0.001) compared to controls. No side effects attributed to creatine.
How They Measured It
Frequency and severity of headache, dizziness, and fatigue symptoms; chi-square test
To determine if creatine supplementation slows the progression of Parkinson's disease and improves mood in early-stage patients.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To determine if creatine supplementation slows the progression of Parkinson's disease and improves mood in early-stage patients.
Dose
4 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
60 patients with Parkinson's disease
Duration
2 years
Results
Creatine improved patient mood and led to a smaller dose increase of dopaminergic therapy. No significant effect on overall UPDRS scores or dopamine transporter SPECT.
How They Measured It
Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS); dopamine transporter SPECT imaging; dopaminergic therapy dosage
To test whether creatine or minocycline can slow progression of early Parkinson's disease in a phase II futility trial.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To test whether creatine or minocycline can slow progression of early Parkinson's disease in a phase II futility trial.
Dose
10 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
200 patients with early Parkinson's disease (within 5 years of diagnosis, not yet requiring medication)
Duration
12 months
Results
Creatine could not be rejected as futile (p=0.96), meaning it showed potential to slow UPDRS progression. Neither creatine nor minocycline was ruled out for further study in this phase II futility trial.
How They Measured It
Total UPDRS score change from baseline to 12 months or time requiring symptomatic therapy
Metabolic Health & Diabetes
To determine if creatine supplementation improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetic patients undergoing exercise training.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To determine if creatine supplementation improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetic patients undergoing exercise training.
Dose
5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
25 type 2 diabetic patients (CR: n=13; PL: n=12)
Duration
12 weeks
Results
HbA1c was significantly reduced in the creatine group vs placebo. Creatine also increased GLUT-4 translocation to the plasma membrane, suggesting improved glucose uptake.
How They Measured It
HbA1c (primary); glucose AUC, insulin, C-peptide, insulin sensitivity indexes, GLUT-4 expression
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation combined with aerobic training on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in sedentary healthy males.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To examine the effects of creatine supplementation combined with aerobic training on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in sedentary healthy males.
Dose
~10 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
22 sedentary healthy males
Duration
12 weeks
Results
Creatine significantly reduced OGTT area under the curve (glucose tolerance) vs placebo (p=0.034). No differences in fasting insulin or HOMA index between groups.
How They Measured It
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) AUC; fasting plasma insulin; HOMA index at baseline, 4, 8, and 12 weeks
To review and meta-analyse evidence on creatine supplementation effects on glycaemic control and insulin resistance in healthy and diabetic patients.
Study Type
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To review and meta-analyse evidence on creatine supplementation effects on glycaemic control and insulin resistance in healthy and diabetic patients.
Dose
Various (3–10 g/day in included studies)
Participants
Meta-analysis of 9 studies
Duration
Various (up to 12 weeks)
Results
Five of nine studies showed some benefit for at least one diabetes parameter. Two studies in diabetic individuals showed beneficial effects. Meta-analysis showed non-significant effects on fasting glucose and HOMA overall, but highlights promise in diabetic populations.
How They Measured It
Fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance (HOMA) meta-analysis across 9 randomised studies
To investigate whether acute and short-term creatine ingestion alters glucose tolerance or insulin action in healthy untrained men.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To investigate whether acute and short-term creatine ingestion alters glucose tolerance or insulin action in healthy untrained men.
Dose
20 g/day for 5 days (loading), then 3 g/day for 28 days
Participants
17 healthy untrained men (8 creatine, 9 placebo)
Duration
33 days
Results
Creatine significantly increased muscle total creatine content after both loading and maintenance phases. Neither acute nor short-term creatine supplementation influenced glucose tolerance or insulin sensitivity.
How They Measured It
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT); insulin sensitivity; muscle TCr content via biopsy
Cardiovascular Health
To evaluate the effects of creatine supplementation on ejection fraction, skeletal muscle strength, and exercise performance in patients with chronic heart failure.
Study Type
Clinical Trial
Purpose
To evaluate the effects of creatine supplementation on ejection fraction, skeletal muscle strength, and exercise performance in patients with chronic heart failure.
Dose
20 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
17 patients with chronic heart failure (ejection fraction <40%, aged 43–70 years)
Duration
10 days
Results
Creatine supplementation increased skeletal muscle total creatine (+17%) and phosphocreatine (+12%). 1-legged performance improved 21%, 2-legged performance 10%, and peak torque 5% vs placebo. Ejection fraction unchanged.
How They Measured It
Ejection fraction (radionuclide angiography); 1-legged and 2-legged exercise performance; knee extensor peak torque; muscle biopsies for phosphagen content
To investigate whether creatine supplementation added to exercise training improves physical performance in cardiac rehabilitation patients (coronary artery disease or CHF).
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To investigate whether creatine supplementation added to exercise training improves physical performance in cardiac rehabilitation patients (coronary artery disease or CHF).
Dose
Not specified in abstract (standard supplementation doses)
Participants
70 cardiac patients (mean age 57.5 years; 4 women) with CAD or CHF
Duration
3 months
Results
Exercise training improved aerobic power, muscle performance, quality of life, and lipid profile in both groups. No additional benefit from creatine over placebo was observed. No adverse renal or liver effects.
How They Measured It
Aerobic power (graded bicycle testing); knee extensor strength and endurance (isokinetic dynamometer); quality of life (SF-36, MacNew); lipid profile; renal/liver function
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation on functional capacity in patients with heart failure.
Study Type
Randomized Controlled Trial
Purpose
To assess the effects of creatine supplementation on functional capacity in patients with heart failure.
Dose
5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Participants
33 male patients with heart failure (functional class II–IV)
Duration
6 months
Results
No significant differences between creatine and placebo for peak VO2, anaerobic threshold, O2 pulse, or 6MWT distance. Creatine supplementation alone did not significantly improve functional capacity in HF.
How They Measured It
Cardiopulmonary exercise test (peak VO2, anaerobic threshold, O2 pulse); 6-minute walk test (6MWT)
Long-term Safety & Renal Function
To systematically review and meta-analyse the effects of creatine supplementation on renal function across clinical and healthy populations.
Study Type
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To systematically review and meta-analyse the effects of creatine supplementation on renal function across clinical and healthy populations.
Dose
Various (studies from 2000–2025)
Participants
Meta-analysis of 21 studies (177 creatine vs 263 control participants in quantitative analysis)
Duration
Various (≤1 week to >12 weeks)
Results
Small but statistically significant increase in serum creatinine (MD: 0.07 µmol/L), likely due to metabolic turnover, not renal impairment. No significant effect on GFR. Overall, creatine preserves kidney function.
How They Measured It
Serum creatinine and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) meta-analysis; 21 studies reviewed; 12 in quantitative meta-analysis
To investigate whether creatine supplementation induces renal damage based on serum creatinine and plasma urea levels.
Study Type
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Purpose
To investigate whether creatine supplementation induces renal damage based on serum creatinine and plasma urea levels.
Dose
Various (standard supplementation doses in included studies)
Participants
Meta-analysis of 15 studies (6 in quantitative analysis)
Duration
Various
Results
Creatine supplementation did not significantly alter serum creatinine levels (SMD=0.48) or plasma urea values (SMD=1.10). Creatine supplementation does not induce renal damage in the studied amounts and durations.
How They Measured It
Serum creatinine and plasma urea from meta-analysis of 6 RCTs; qualitative analysis of 15 studies
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions about Creatine Monohydrate research
There are currently 50 peer-reviewed studies on Creatine Monohydrate, involving 2,700 total participants. Research covers Athletic Performance, Muscle Mass & Strength, Cognitive Function and 4 more areas. The overall evidence strength is rated as Strong.
The evidence is currently rated as "Strong Evidence". This rating is based on study design quality (randomisation, blinding, placebo controls), sample sizes, study types (40 human studies), and reported outcomes.
Creatine Monohydrate has been researched for: Athletic Performance, Muscle Mass & Strength, Cognitive Function, Mental Health, Neurological Health, Metabolic Health, Cardiovascular Health. Each area has its own body of evidence which you can explore in the study breakdowns above.
Yes, 40 out of 50 studies are human trials. Human trials carry more weight in our evidence scoring system.
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